Modeling, also called imitation, observational learning or vicarious learning, is a fundamental intervention strategy, alone or in conjunction with other techniques, for the psychotherapist who uses the cognitive-behavioral paradigm as a reference model. This article from PsicologíaOnline aims to analyze the topic of Shaping: definition, key factors and areas of application in psychotherapy. Thus visualizing a triple point of view.
Article summary
Firstly, as an introductory theoretical framework, we briefly describe the fundamental principles underlying modeling as well as the processes involved in it.
Below we propose a general procedure for its application ,the main technical variants based on a series of dimensions, key factors and basic principles involved in the effective use of modeling in psychotherapy. Finally, some of the most relevant applications that have been made of modeling, in the field of health psychology and psychotherapy, in recent years.
Theoretical framework
The study of imitation in Psychology It was almost completely ignored until the pioneering work of Miller and Dollard (1941). These authors reviewed the theories that existed at that time and formulated their own concept of imitation using a basically behavioral context. Twenty years had to pass before the importance of learning by imitation for the development of personality and social learning was clearly evident in a book by Bandura and Walters (1963). Since then, Bandura’s name has become almost synonymous with the study of observational learning and its effects on social behavior. The term ‘modeling’ has replaced the imitation as a generic expression that encompasses a variety of observational learning processes.
Although there are various theories about the nature and processes that take place in modeling, the position defended by Bandura seems to be the one that enjoys the greatest acceptance today (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1987). In 1969, with the publication of Albert Bandura’s book ‘Principles of Behavior Modification’, the foundations were laid for operationalize modeling techniques in social learning theory (Olivares and Méndez,1998).
Modeling: theoretical foundation
Cormier and Cormier (1994) define modeling as “the observational learning process where the behavior of an individual or group – the model – acts as a stimulus for the thoughts, attitudes or behaviors of another individual or group that observes the execution of the model”
The basic features of the theoretical foundation of modeling, proposed by Bandura himself, are presented in a concise and concrete way by Olivares and Méndez (1998) in the following terms:
Basic Assumption
Most human behavior is learned by observation through modeling.
Fundamental Premise
Any behavior that can be acquired or modified through direct experience is, in principle, susceptible to being learned or modified by observing the behavior of others and the consequences that arise.
Symbolic Mediation Processes
The subject acquires symbolic representations of the modeled behavior and not mere specific ER associations.
General Application Procedure and Effects of Modeling
The subject observes the model’s behavior and imitates it with the objective of:
- Acquire new response patterns
Acquisition Effect: Learning new behaviors or behavioral patterns that were not initially included in the person’s behavioral repertoire.
- Strengthen or weaken responses
Inhibitory Effect: The observer notes the lack of positive consequences or the contingency of negative consequences after the model performs the behavior.
Disinhibitory Effect: Disinhibition of a behavior by the observer after verifying that the model performs it without experiencing any negative consequences.
- Facilitate the execution of responses already existing in the subject’s repertoire
Facilitation Effect: It facilitates the execution of behavioral patterns previously learned as a consequence of observing a model.
Basic processes involved in modeling
Bandura and Jeffery (1973) distinguish four basic processes involved in any modeling process:
The activity of the observer consists of concentrating on what is modeled.
It refers to the symbolic or linguistic coding, cognitive organization and covert rehearsal of the presented model.
The ability of the observer to reproduce, rehearse or practice the behavior whose model has been observed.
Favorable predisposition of the observer to assume the proposed objectives as their own through the use of modeling techniques.
Each and every one of these basic processes, common in all modeling proceduresare deeply interrelated and are essential factors (prerequisites) for the success of any therapeutic process that uses modeling as a basic intervention strategy.
General procedure for applying modeling
Although modeling can be used through multiple technical variants, as I will list later, it is possible to offer, based on the work of various authors (Cruzado, 1995; Olivares and Méndez, 1998), a basic sequence in its application that would include the following nine basic steps:
- Establishment of therapeutic objectives, short, medium and long term.
- Hierarchization (progressive difficulty), if necessary, of the behaviors to be modeled.
- The therapist provides specific instructions to the client about the key aspects to attend to during the modeling process:
3.1. Stimuli present situational
3.2.Dimensions relevant to the model’s behavior.
3.3. Consequences that arise after carrying out the behavior.
- The model executes previously established behaviors and verbally describes what it is doing and the anticipated consequences of its behavior.
- The therapist asks the client to describe the behavior carried out by the model, its antecedents and its consequences.
- Instruct the client to put into practice what was observed in the session.
- Support the client during performance (verbal cues or physical guides) and provide positive feedback.
- Carry out the necessary behavioral tests until the behavior is consolidated.
- Planning therapeutic tasks between sessions.
Classification of modeling techniques
Modeling presents a large number of technical variants, classifiable based on a series of basic dimensions (Labrador et al., 1993; Olivares and Méndez, 1998):
- Observer Behavior:
1.1.Passive Modeling: The subject only observes the model’s behavior, without reproducing it during the training session.
1.2. Active Modeling: The subject observes the execution of the model and then reproduces the modeled behavior in the same treatment session.
- The Presentation of the Model:
2.1. Symbolic Modeling: Modeling is carried out through a video recording, film, cassette or any other audiovisual medium.
2.2.Live Modeling: The model carries out the behavior in the presence of the observer
2.3. Covert Modeling: The subject must imagine the model’s behavior.
- The Appropriateness of the Behavior of the Model:
3.1. Positive Modeling: Model appropriate behavior or goal-behavior.
3.2. Negative Modeling: Model unwanted behaviors.
3.3. Mixed Modeling: Use of negative modeling followed by positive modeling.
- The Degree of Difficulty of the Behavior to Model:
4.1. Modeling of Intermediate Behaviors: Terminal behavior is decomposed into intermediate behaviors that are progressively modeled and assimilated by the subject.
4.2. Target Behavior Modeling: In cases where the target behavior is not excessively complex, it is modeled directly.
- The Number of Observers:
5.1. Individual Modeling: Modeling is performed before a single observer, generally in therapeutic contexts.
5.2. Group Modeling: Modeling occurs before a group, generally in educational contexts.
- The Number of Models:
6.1. Simple Modeling: Presentation of a single model
6.2. Multiple Modeling: Various models are used, different and similar to the observer.
- The Identity of the Model:
7.1. Self-modelling: The model is the observer himself. Use of audiovisual media.
7.2. Modeling: Model and observer are different people. The most common strategy.
- The Nature of the Model:
8.1. Human Modeling: The model is a person who must have characteristics of similarity and/or prestige for the observer.
8.2. Non-Human Modeling: Cartoons, puppets, dolls or fantastic beings are used as models, preferably (although not exclusively) with children.
- The Competence Shown by the Model:
9.1. Mastery Modeling: The model has the necessary skills and resources to effectively handle the situation from the beginning.
9.2. Coping Modeling: The model initially shows similar skills to the observer and progressively demonstrates the skills necessary to resolve the situation in a satisfactory manner.
Key factors of modeling effectiveness
The simple observation of the behavior of a third party does not necessarily guarantee obtaining significant psychotherapeutic results. There are a series of key factors and variables that need to be taken into account when planning, by the psychotherapist, a modeling procedure with certain guarantees of success (Kanfer and Goldstein,1987):
A) Factors that improve acquisition (attention and retention)
Model Features:
- Similarity (sex, age, race and attitudes).
- Competence.
- Cordiality.
- Prestige.
Observer Characteristics:
- Information processing and retention capacity.
- Uncertainty.
- Anxiety level.
- Personality factors.
Characteristics of the way in which the model is presented:
- Real or symbolic model.
- Several models.
- Progressive skills model (coping)
- Graduated procedures.
- Instructions.
- Commentary on features and rules.
- Summary made by the observer.
- Rehearsal.
- Minimization of distracting stimuli.
B) Factors that improve execution (reproduction and motivation)
Factors that represent an incentive:
- Vicarious Reinforcement.
- Vicarious extinction of the fear of responding.
- Direct reinforcement.
- Imitation.
Factors that affect the quality of the implementation of the behavior:
- Behavioral test.
- Participatory modeling.
Factors affecting the transfer and generalization of results:
- Similarity training situation-subject natural environment.
- Practice answers.
- Incentives in the natural environment.
- Learning principles.
- Variations in the training situation.
Fundamental principles of effective modeling
Taking as reference the above and based on the contributions made by various authors (Cormier and Cormier,1994;Gavino 1997;Kanfer and Goldstein 1987;Muñoz and Bermejo,2001;Olivares and Méndez,1998) in relation to the effective application of modeling in a context…